Psycologie
psychologie
Medical psychology, she tries to understand how the human psyche about the disease, the patient and the physician. The field of this discipline is thus both broader and different.
Psychosomatic illnesses and somatic complaints are that the onset and progress can be traced in part to unconscious mental disorders.
These are mainly asthma, eczema, ulcerative colitis, certain high blood pressure. The causes of these diseases are varied, but each time, a psychological factor, among others, may be incriminated.
For the general psychiatrist Henri Ey, ‘psychiatry is the branch of medicine that is to the pathology of the life of relationship, level of integration that ensures autonomy and human adaptation to the conditions of its existence. (…) The psychiatrist is neither a policeman nor a political activist, a doctor …’.
For Perlemuter, ‘psychiatry is the medical specialty that focuses on the pathological changes of cognitive activity and integrative brain, thyme or mood and emotion. It supports not only the intellectual and characterological disorders of the individual but also the disruption of the relationship he establishes with his entourage. ‘
When the patient comes to see himself, the psychiatrist seeks to define the symptoms that prompted the consultation: their permanent or intermittent, the existence of identical background etc..
In most cases, the patient is aware of his problems but he may be difficult to express them as neurotic manifestations are often judged by the subject as completely absurd.
Sometimes the patient presenting with somatic symptoms and the doctor will diagnose psychological disorder but will sometimes struggle to gain acceptance. Other times, the patient consults, persuaded to be normal, oblivious to his troubles, driven to desperation by his relationship problems with his entourage.
The psychiatrist must then locate the character structure of patient anxiety, relationship of dependency vis-à-vis the environment, emotional immaturity, sensitivity to the frustrations of neurotic order. Emotional withdrawal, disinterest evoke such a schizophrenic dissociation. Paranoid structure is known before the austerity of lifestyle, obedience to strict rules, the attitude of distrust.
Mythomaniacal trends are recognized at the difficulties of overlap, the tendency to minimize problems and roles of prestige.
When the patient is seen by the psychiatrist at the request of the entourage, the first patient is different and requires careful handling. Often the patient denies and disputes the description of the disorder is made.
Shyness refers to a neurotic inhibition, the hysteric adopts a spirit of seduction. One problem is fear of contact early schizophrenia. Is the paranoid psycho: he brings his medical records, taking notes etc..
They confirm the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders because of their negativity in particular as regards the electroencephalogram (EEG), CT scan and magnetic resonance imaging.
They can be global or partial, and are manifested by a loss of intellectual capacity in the broad sense orientation in time and space, language understanding, etc..
The overall loss events of interest immediately or gradually all integrative functions, cognitive and memory of the intellect:
By definition, these are diseases of the personality, minor severity, not involving serious behavioral problems and do not require hospitalization (internment).
Neuroses expressed by disorders in which patients are conscious and whose occurrence is related to psychological trauma (recent or old). The neurotic subject has an accurate perception of reality that surrounds him, his condition he can describe in general.
Psychotic subjects had a false perception of reality (delusions) and the world around him.He interprets the elements of the outside world in a sense.
Psychological imbalance is defined by acting out. From childhood disorders are obvious: lies, theft, running away prelude to delinquency. The problem of criminal responsibility is of course in the foreground.
The subject psychopath is unable to resist his urges, whatever they are. It works immediately, without thinking about the consequences of his act, which moreover do not matter to him. He lacks the capacity to anticipate, predict. It is often dangerous to society. That’s one reason to doubt the deterrent of the death penalty.
They are carrying out active pleasures or regressive fantasy that replace the normal performance of the sexual act and its enforcement genital:
This concept has gradually imposed on psychiatrists to describe subjects who, by their manner, their behavior and their relationship style were significantly different personalities so-called normal or routine provided without presenting symptoms of a mental disorder characterized.
For Schneider, the ‘personality disorders are purely quantitative deviations of the personality, statistically rare and whose attitudes and behaviors are a cause of suffering for the subject himself or his entourage.’
Forum Health Forum Psychology Forum Nutrition
Psychologies Magazine
in January
Visit Summary
Do you flirt? :
Psychology, Greek psukhê, soul, and logos, word, is the scientific study of psychic phenomena, empirical knowledge or intuitive feelings, ideas, behaviors of others and his family, all ways of thinking , feeling, acting that characterize a person, animal, group or person.
Divided into many branches of study, disciplines approach the field on both theoretical and practical applications with therapeutic, social and sometimes political or théologiques.La psychology aims to investigate the psyche in terms of structures and operation. It therefore seeks to describe, assess and explain the mental processes as a whole taking into account expressions of subjectivity.
History of Psychology
Before presenting the main stages of historical development of psychological science, it is essential to locate the three areas of study that structure the domain of the human psyche. Indeed, the human person is, inextricably, a body with a brain developed to conduct sophisticated, personality, backed by this organism in relation to a company, a subjectivity (conscious and unconscious) constructed from Personality and inserted into a set of social representations.
Axis lines
Historically, this is the first axis which has benefited from scientific treatment, with methods and tools imported from other fields of science. The pipes are studied by science neuropsychophysiologiques as natural pipes. They are, from this point of view, analysis and action for both human behavior than that of animals. And if we can not, strictly speaking, build animal psychology, there is a neuropsychophysiologie animal.
Along this axis, have traditionally developed studies of reflexes, perception, emotion, character, etc.. Since the 1990s, the development of neuroscience and cognitive science, has to address brain function for each of the pipes. Thus, we can discover the possibilities of a human as an animal with a powerful brain.
Axis of personality
The meaning of the acts can be induced behaviors:it uses a different kind of explanation, although any action to implement neuropsychophysiologiques lines and passes through the brain. Acts are both products and producers of personality during his individualization within a historical process, biography. Theories of personality are part of the field of psychology and tell us about:
This pin requires a definition of personality, but no agreement could still be on this definition, which still appears a bit on the fringes of psychology. Although personality is widely discussed and studied literature, art, in biographies, existing theories provide only partial insights on what makes a particular event relevant biographical and critical.The definitions proposed by various theories of personality are contradictory, some seeing the personality as a core of permanent and repetitive behavior, imagining that the other person is a living, evolving throughout life, others personality make a moral entity, ideal.
Axis of the subject
The purpose of this axis is the analysis of training and development of the subject, subjectivity as a structure that is built into the proposed framework:
These three areas are more or less present throughout the history of psychology, since the precursors to the current research. This development, advanced unevenly along the lines often considered independent of each other or even exclusive, will serve as a thread through the wide variety of work in psychology.
A first step was the separation between philosophy and psychology.This separation is still incomplete in some aspects, particularly where the subject is often confusion between subject and subject category philosophical, scientific concept in psychology.
Precursors
Philosophers
Even before the pioneering work of Plato (-427, -348) and Aristotle (-384, -322) in Psychology (the term exist only from 1575, Johannes Thomas Freigius, Ciceronianus), men are interested in perception, sensation, emotions, feelings and thought. It traces found in the Iliad and the Odyssey, in the mythologies of all peoples or in the sacred books, historical psychology (Ignace Meyerson, 1888-1983) demonstrates this. The earliest known texts that evoke a reflection on the emergence of thought and conscience are those whom history has preserved, but it is likely that they relied on previous work that we do not know.
Thus Plato and Aristotle do they appear in full light, while we have no or very few texts of their contemporaries Democritus (c-460, C-360) and Epicurus (-342, -270). Lucretius (-98, -54), better known, belongs to this heritage of antiquity must be completed by two commentators on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), which centuries later resume its work and will provide the funds that may be scholasticism.
Plato described a hierarchy of the psyche: the higher soul (courage, ambition) located in the heart, soul less nutritious in the liver. In the Phaedo, it separates the immaterial soul, so the mind, body and equipment considered as the soul controls the body. This idealistic dualism leave deep scars into the various currents of the psychology of the twentieth century.
Aristotle criticizes Plato. Indeed, for him, the soul is not the lead body. In metaphysics, he asks:
Aristotle introduced in his treatise on the soul of a tripartite soul, with a gradualist perspective: vegetative, sensory and cognitive, which reproduces the partition of living things into plants, animals and humans. (Physicians traditionally speak of a ‘vegetative state.’) He is interested in the faculties of the soul (memory, trial, etc..) And wondered what in the soul knows and thinks he calls it ‘poiètikon’ poetic understanding, which should rather be understood in the modern sense of ‘mental’ than poetry. The desire is to obtain the pleasure and the elimination of pain, in a design similar to Epicureanism.
Thus questioning the relationship between body and perception, thought and body, mind and matter, Aristotle opens a debate resumed over the centuries, whether the ‘intellect’ and ‘material intellect’Are unique and eternal (God) or if the soul and intellect are separate. His answer is that the soul is to body as form to matter (as distinct and inseparable).
Lucretia installment by saying that the soul as ‘vital breath’ (anima in Latin) animates the body and in De rerum natura (On the Nature of things), he notes that:
The oppositions between monistic and dualistic conceptions are old and the great difficulty in defining the relationship between body and mind will occupy psychologists following centuries.
Physicians
The other side of the ancient science is the observations and experiences of physicians. From ancient times, questions about mental health and mental disorders are attested: the Ebers Papyrus (c1550 BC) contains a brief description of clinical depression, with recipes for magical or religious hunt.
Medical thought is born with Empedocles (484-424 BC) In Sicily with his theory of the qualities of the four elements (earth, water, air, fire) in its relations with the four humors necessary for the well-being: blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.
Hippocrates (C460-C370 BC) makes a classification of mental disorders including mania, melancholia, paranoia or damage, epilepsy, in connection with the sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic or melancholic. He met and diseases of the soul and body, diseases are physical, and so he took to demystify mental illness, which had previously been rather linked to demonic manifestations.
Aretaeus of Cappadocia (80-138) is fine descriptions of mental disorders, in particular it offers the beginnings of a unified conception of melancholy and mania.
It Galen (131-201) which will gather prior knowledge (the work of Hippocrates and those of Aristotle in particular) and will significantly expand in what will become, for fifteen centuries, the main source of medical knowledge in spheres of influence Jewish, Christian and Muslim.So, he opened a process of physiological experiments, anatomy, diagnosis and therapy, pharmacology and hygiene. Medicine, from Hippocrates, is preventive (health) as well as curative. The causes of disease and health are sought from natural causes, rational.
Galen distinguished, like Hippocrates, four temperaments and articulates all four elements in a combinatorial allowing it to classify diseases according to the imbalances between the various trends, the bases of emotions and behavior occurring biochemical nature. Thus the excess of blood leads to sanguine, yellow bile choleric temperament, black bile melancholic temperament, etc.. This approach is reflected centuries later in characterology (see Le Senne (1882-1954) in particular).
Alexander Tralles (525-605), Greek physician born in Lycia, develops the theory of Galen and performs a primer theories ‘localizationists’ brain.The Hippocratic heritage of ancient medicine leads to the beginnings of a psychiatry based on four major diseases: the frenzy and lethargy associated with toxic-infectious states, mania and melancholy, ‘madness without fever.’
The Arab heritage will be transmitted in the eleventh century, with its translation into Latin.
(This should complete the picture of science in other sciences Mediterranean, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, etc.).
Late nineteenth and early twentieth century: the early successes
Hitherto confined to the anatomical description of the main structures of the nervous system, neurology nineteenth century made significant progress with the development of new technologies (electricity, microscopy, chemistry) that explore the nervous system to scale of the infinitely small, but also, for the first time a functional point of view, that is to say by looking at its physiological mechanisms.At this time, with the discovery of neurons, is set up the notion that the psyche is based on an extremely complex network of nerve cells.
As the examples above, neurology provides great names in the progress of neuroscience, but incursions by neurologists in what is today defined as neuropsychology are rarer, although they are not so much an improvement techniques experimental to a theoretical renewal. Among the major debates that cross discipline, there is the question of the functional organization of the brain that deal with holistic take the brain for a homogeneous body without functional compartmentalization, oppose the proponents of cerebral localizationists who defend the idea that the brain is organized into functional areas each providing a more specific function. In ranks of the latter there are as follows:
The late nineteenth century marked the real emergence of psychology as a discipline in its own right between neurology, physiology but also psychiatry.And the School of the Salpetriere in Paris, around the neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) develops a theoretical link to the psyche organic manifestations.
Hitherto regarded as a branch of philosophy, psychology won its independence with the creation of academic chairs and laboratories of its own. At the same time, the German physiologists develop a new approach called psycho whose objective is to determine the mathematical laws that govern the human mind. Their field of expertise is the psychology of perception, but their methods are exported around the world on the grounds of the measurement of intelligence, memory, etc.. :
The beginning of the twentieth century: the methodological approach in psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology, whose scope is the essence of psychopathology in adults and children, is a theoretical and practical psychic functioning that builds on many conceptions of mental life, and psychotherapeutic techniques .
In this approach, the patient’s past history, the vicissitudes of psychological development and updating their potential are taken into account by a practitioner: the clinical psychologist. The symptom is meaningful, and the singularity of the subject, in his experience and his speech is at the forefront.
The goal of clinical psychology is to understand the unity and uniqueness of the subject in a therapeutic approach, which is subtended by a ‘logos’ clearly belonging to the humanities.
Clinical psychology, which has long relied on the psychoanalytic model and maintains a psychodynamic theoretical base, has gradually diversified with the advent of new techniques of psychotherapy and personal development. If the symptom is always regarded as an expression of subjectivity, some practices are more focused on the psychological mobilization related to emotion, body, or group situation. The unconscious becomes an object of investigation more secondary.It may in this context, talk of systemic family therapy, gestalt therapy of, therapy motivationelle, psychodrama, psychotherapy humanist, to name a few.
The cognitive perspective: open the ‘black box’
The cognitive or cognitive psychology was incorporated into the broader framework of cognitive science in the mid-1950s. This approach was based on opposition to the behaviorist tradition which regarded the human mind (and animal) as a ‘black box’ whose results (ie d.’s Behavior) should be analyzed as a function of inputs (ie d. sensory inputs) without having to make additional assumptions about the mechanisms involved. The cognitivist project was therefore to try to characterize not only the link between stimulus and behavioral response observed by the experimenter but also the organization of internal processes involved in this behavior.The debate between these two approaches was particularly illustrated in the criticism by the linguist Noam Chomsky’s book Verbal Behavior of BF Skinner devoted to language. Chomsky denounced the mistake he would want to, as proposed by Skinner, analyze language or other complex behavior as the result of learning based solely on behavior-type associations reward. Thus, in the case of language, the fact that a child can produce grammatically correct sentences even though he has never heard (and was never rewarded or not to have spoken before) may restrict explain that the assumption that the human brain has a special cognitive capacity devoted to language and partly innate: this argument says argument of poverty of the stimulus play an important role in the justification of the idea of a universal grammar which would have all human beings innately.
Beyond the question of language, the cognitivist project will be to show the dead scientist who would, by the behaviourist tradition, wanting to understand the thought without breaking it into a complex combination of multiple processes, some of which may be innate but others result from learning and experience. The metaphor is so prevalent that the brain-computer at a time when advances in computer technology are promising for artificial intelligence. According to the cognitivist paradigm, the information would be a sequential or parallel while moving between the various processes that constitute the human mind according to the schematic structure:
Subsequently, these mental processes have also been named modules as they were conceptualized as mechanisms relatively independent of each other. The philosopher Jerry Fodor formalize this concept in a book under unambiguous, The modularity of mind.In this perspective, the mind (human) is organized at different levels as a complex mechanism comprising modules characterized by the fact that they treat certain information automatically. This would explain certain psychological phenomena such as optical illusions that persist even when we know that this is an illusion, the fact that the visual system operates in a modular fashion. One can also cite other conceptual approaches based, for example, on models of neural networks where information is distributed within a network consists of a large number of units. Mechanisms?? The information processing. This trend called ‘connectionist’ although of lesser influence on the development of cognitive psychology will play an important role in??
These theoretical developments are consistent with experimental developments which form the basis of experimental methods in cognitive psychology.Among these include the renewal of the approach known as mental chronometry proposed a century ago by psychologist Franciscus Donders that the measure of reaction time provides an index of the processing time of a given stimulus. This methodology in combination with the decomposition modularist cognitive psychology gives rise to a very large number of experimental work on perception, decision, language, computation, etc.. The key questions in cognitive psychology are then:
From the 1970s, cognitive psychology will change significantly under the influence of neuroscience and new methods for studying the brain activity. With advances in technology, electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical potentials from the surface of the scalp that reflect the dynamics of the overall activity of neurons. The analysis of this dynamic opens a pathway to the temporal sequence of neural activities that are proposed to identify the sequence of mental operations identified by other methods based in particular mental chronometry.During the 1980s, new brain imaging methods will emerge with positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in the 1990s. Thanks to them, this time we can know the different regions involved in a given experimental task. The association between mental operation is done so this time not on the time dimension but spatially: the objective being to identify the neurobiological bases of modules postulated by cognitive psychology. The use of neuroscience methods in experimental cognitive psychology will give birth to what today is called cognitive neuroscience.
Criticism of the cognitive approach in psychology
Some argue that this perspective is that of ‘human machine’ that conveys an image of the human being conducive to the ideology of the performance and management. This observation underscores the fact that this does not care about the impact ‘green’Of his theories, and in this sense, we move away from a psychology that measures its progress according to its congruence with the humanity of its’ object ‘of study: us.
Conversely, progress in this discipline since the mid-twentieth century can be seen in the context of better knowledge of man, the analytical approach and modeling informational being there to guide the scientific to specific questions open to experimentation: the image of the brain-computer is a metaphor. In support of this thesis, we can mention the fact that the theory has fundamentally shifted towards an integration of multiple approaches in the cognitive tradition, including connectionist, and helped establish new links with other scientific disciplines as the basic neuroscience, ethology, behavioral genetics, psychology or social sciences and humanities.
History of Psychology
Before presenting the main stages of historical development of psychological science, it is essential to locate the three areas of study that structure the domain of the human psyche. Indeed, the human person is, inextricably, a body with a brain developed to conduct sophisticated, personality, backed by this organism in relation to a company, a subjectivity (conscious and unconscious) constructed from Personality and inserted into a set of social representations.
Axis lines
Historically, this is the first axis which has benefited from scientific treatment, with methods and tools imported from other fields of science. The pipes are studied by science neuropsychophysiologiques as natural pipes. They are, from this point of view, analysis and action for both human behavior than that of animals. And if we can not, strictly speaking, build animal psychology, there is a neuropsychophysiologie animal.
Along this axis, have traditionally developed studies of reflexes, perception, emotion, character, etc.. Since the 1990s, the development of neuroscience and cognitive science, has to address brain function for each of the pipes. Thus, we can discover the possibilities of a human as an animal with a powerful brain.
Axis of personality
The meaning of the acts can be induced behaviors: it uses a different kind of explanation, although any action to implement neuropsychophysiologiques lines and passes through the brain. Acts are both products and producers of personality during his individualization within a historical process, biography. Theories of personality are part of the field of psychology and tell us about:
This pin requires a definition of personality, but no agreement could still be on this definition, which still appears a bit on the fringes of psychology.Although personality is widely discussed and studied literature, art, in biographies, existing theories provide only partial insights on what makes a particular event relevant biographical and critical. The definitions proposed by various theories of personality are contradictory, some seeing the personality as a core of permanent and repetitive behavior, imagining that the other person is a living, evolving throughout life, others personality make a moral entity, ideal.
Axis of the subject
The purpose of this axis is the analysis of training and development of the subject, subjectivity as a structure that is built into the proposed framework:
These three areas are more or less present throughout the history of psychology, since the precursors to the current research.This development, advanced unevenly along the lines often considered independent of each other or even exclusive, will serve as a thread through the wide variety of work in psychology.
A first step was the separation between philosophy and psychology. This separation is still incomplete in some aspects, particularly where the subject is often confusion between subject and subject category philosophical, scientific concept in psychology.
Precursors
Philosophers
Even before the pioneering work of Plato (-427, -348) and Aristotle (-384, -322) in Psychology (the term exist only from 1575, Johannes Thomas Freigius, Ciceronianus), men are interested in perception, sensation, emotions, feelings and thought. It traces found in the Iliad and the Odyssey, in the mythologies of all peoples or in the sacred books, historical psychology (Ignace Meyerson, 1888-1983) demonstrates this.The earliest known texts that evoke a reflection on the emergence of thought and conscience are those whom history has preserved, but it is likely that they relied on previous work that we do not know.
Thus Plato and Aristotle do they appear in full light, while we have no or very few texts of their contemporaries Democritus (c-460, C-360) and Epicurus (-342, -270). Lucretius (-98, -54), better known, belongs to this heritage of antiquity must be completed by two commentators on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), which centuries later resume its work and will provide the funds that may be scholasticism.
Plato described a hierarchy of the psyche: the higher soul (courage, ambition) located in the heart, soul less nutritious in the liver. In the Phaedo, it separates the immaterial soul, so the mind, body and equipment considered as the soul controls the body.This idealistic dualism leave deep scars into the various currents of the psychology of the twentieth century.
Aristotle criticizes Plato. Indeed, for him, the soul is not the lead body. In metaphysics, he asks:
Aristotle introduced in his treatise on the soul of a tripartite soul, with a gradualist perspective: vegetative, sensory and cognitive, which reproduces the partition of living things into plants, animals and humans. (Physicians traditionally speak of a ‘vegetative state.’) He is interested in the faculties of the soul (memory, trial, etc..) And wondered what in the soul knows and thinks he calls it ‘poiètikon’ poetic understanding, which should rather be understood in the modern sense of ‘mental’ than poetry. The desire is to obtain the pleasure and the elimination of pain, in a design similar to Epicureanism.
Thus questioning the relationship between body and perception, thought and body, mind and matter, Aristotle opens a debate resumed over the centuries, whether the ‘intellect’ and ‘material intellect’ are unique and eternal (God) or if the soul and intellect are separate. His answer is that the soul is to body as form to matter (as distinct and inseparable).
Lucretia installment by saying that the soul as ‘vital breath’ (anima in Latin) animates the body and in De rerum natura (On the Nature of things), he notes that:
The oppositions between monistic and dualistic conceptions are old and the great difficulty in defining the relationship between body and mind will occupy psychologists following centuries.
Physicians
The other side of the ancient science is the observations and experiences of physicians. From ancient times, questions about mental health and mental disorders are attested: the Ebers Papyrus (c1550 BC) Contains a brief description of clinical depression, with recipes for magical or religious hunt.
Medical thought is born with Empedocles (484-424 BC) in Sicily with his theory of the qualities of the four elements (earth, water, air, fire) in its relations with the four humors necessary for the well-being: blood , phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.
Hippocrates (C460-C370 BC) makes a classification of mental disorders including mania, melancholia, paranoia or damage, epilepsy, in connection with the sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic or melancholic. He met and diseases of the soul and body, diseases are physical, and so he took to demystify mental illness, which had previously been rather linked to demonic manifestations.
Aretaeus of Cappadocia (80-138) is fine descriptions of mental disorders, in particular it offers the beginnings of a unified conception of melancholy and mania.
It Galen (131-201) which will gather prior knowledge (the work of Hippocrates and those of Aristotle in particular) and will significantly expand in what will become, for fifteen centuries, the main source of medical knowledge in spheres of influence Jewish, Christian and Muslim. So, he opened a process of physiological experiments, anatomy, diagnosis and therapy, pharmacology and hygiene. Medicine, from Hippocrates, is preventive (health) as well as curative. The causes of disease and health are sought from natural causes, rational.
Galen distinguished, like Hippocrates, four temperaments and articulates all four elements in a combinatorial allowing it to classify diseases according to the imbalances between the various trends, the bases of emotions and behavior occurring biochemical nature. Thus the excess of blood leads to sanguine, yellow bile choleric temperament, black bile melancholic temperament, etc.. This approach is reflected centuries later in characterology (see Le Senne (1882-1954) in particular).
Alexander Tralles (525-605), Greek physician born in Lycia, develops the theory of Galen and performs a primer theories ‘localizationists’ brain. The Hippocratic heritage of ancient medicine leads to the beginnings of a psychiatry based on four major diseases: the frenzy and lethargy associated with toxic-infectious states, mania and melancholy, ‘madness without fever.’
The Arab heritage will be transmitted in the eleventh century, with its translation into Latin.
(This should complete the picture of science in other sciences Mediterranean, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, etc.).
Late nineteenth and early twentieth century: the early successes
Hitherto confined to the anatomical description of the main structures of the nervous system, neurology nineteenthcentury made significant progress with the development of new technologies (electricity, microscopy, chemistry) that explore the nervous system across the infinitely small, but also, for the first time a point Functionally, that is to say by looking at its physiological mechanisms. At this time, with the discovery of neurons, is set up the notion that the psyche is based on an extremely complex network of nerve cells.
As the examples above, neurology provides great names in the progress of neuroscience, but incursions by neurologists in what is today defined as neuropsychology are rarer, although they are not so much an improvement techniques experimental to a theoretical renewal. Among the major debates that cross discipline, there is the question of the functional organization of the brain:holistic face that take the brain for a homogeneous body without functional compartmentalization, oppose the proponents of cerebral localizationists who defend the idea that the brain is organized into functional areas each providing a more specific function. In ranks of the latter there are as follows:
The late nineteenth century marked the real emergence of psychology as a discipline in its own right between neurology, physiology but also psychiatry. And the School of the Salpetriere in Paris, around the neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) develops a theoretical link to the psyche organic manifestations.
Hitherto regarded as a branch of philosophy, psychology won its independence with the creation of academic chairs and laboratories of its own. At the same time, the German physiologists develop a new approach called psycho whose objective is to determine the mathematical laws that govern the human mind.Their field of expertise is the psychology of perception, but their methods are exported around the world on the grounds of the measurement of intelligence, memory, etc.. :
The beginning of the twentieth century: the methodological approach in psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology, whose scope is the essence of psychopathology in adults and children, is a theoretical and practical psychic functioning that builds on many conceptions of mental life, and psychotherapeutic techniques .
In this approach, the patient’s past history, the vicissitudes of psychological development and updating their potential are taken into account by a practitioner: the clinical psychologist. The symptom is meaningful, and the singularity of the subject, in his experience and his speech is at the forefront.
The goal of clinical psychology is to understand the unity and uniqueness of the subject in a therapeutic approach, which is subtended by a ‘logos’ clearly belonging to the humanities.
Clinical psychology, which has long relied on the psychoanalytic model and maintains a psychodynamic theoretical base, has gradually diversified with the advent of new techniques of psychotherapy and personal development. If the symptom is always regarded as an expression of subjectivity, some practices are more focused on the psychological mobilization related to emotion, body, or group situation. The unconscious becomes an object of investigation more secondary. It may in this context, talk of systemic family therapy, gestalt therapy of, therapy motivationelle, psychodrama, psychotherapy humanist, to name a few.
The cognitive perspective: open the ‘black box’
The cognitive or cognitive psychology was incorporated into the broader framework of cognitive science in the mid-1950s. This approach was based on opposition to the behaviorist tradition which regarded the human mind (and animal) as a ‘black box’ whose results (ie d.behavior) should be analyzed as a function of inputs (ie d. sensory inputs) without having to make additional assumptions about the mechanisms involved. The cognitivist project was therefore to try to characterize not only the link between stimulus and behavioral response observed by the experimenter but also the organization of internal processes involved in this behavior. The debate between these two approaches was particularly illustrated in the criticism by the linguist Noam Chomsky’s book Verbal Behavior of BF Skinner devoted to language. Chomsky denounced the mistake he would want to, as proposed by Skinner, analyze language or other complex behavior as the result of learning based solely on behavior-type associations reward.Thus, in the case of language, the fact that a child can produce grammatically correct sentences even though he has never heard (and was never rewarded or not to have spoken before) may restrict explain that the assumption that the human brain has a special cognitive capacity devoted to language and partly innate: this argument says argument of poverty of the stimulus play an important role in the justification of the idea of a universal grammar which would have all human beings innately.
Beyond the question of language, the cognitivist project will be to show the dead scientist who would, by the behaviourist tradition, wanting to understand the thought without breaking it into a complex combination of multiple processes, some of which may be innate but others result from learning and experience. The metaphor is so prevalent that the brain-computer at a time when advances in computer technology are promising for artificial intelligence.According to the cognitivist paradigm, the information would be a sequential or parallel while moving between the various processes that constitute the human mind according to the schematic structure:
Subsequently, these mental processes have also been named modules as they were conceptualized as mechanisms relatively independent of each other. The philosopher Jerry Fodor formalize this concept in a book under unambiguous, The modularity of mind. In this perspective, the mind (human) is organized at different levels as a complex mechanism comprising modules characterized by the fact that they treat certain information automatically. This would explain certain psychological phenomena such as optical illusions that persist even when we know that this is an illusion, the fact that the visual system operates in a modular fashion. One can also cite other conceptual approaches based, for example, on models of neural networks where information is distributed within a network consists of a large number of units. Mechanisms?? The information processing.This trend called ‘connectionist’ although of lesser influence on the development of cognitive psychology will play an important role in??
These theoretical developments are consistent with experimental developments which form the basis of experimental methods in cognitive psychology. Among these include the renewal of the approach known as mental chronometry proposed a century ago by psychologist Franciscus Donders that the measure of reaction time provides an index of the processing time of a given stimulus. This methodology in combination with the decomposition modularist cognitive psychology gives rise to a very large number of experimental work on perception, decision, language, computation, etc.. The key questions in cognitive psychology are then:
From the 1970s, cognitive psychology will change significantly under the influence of neuroscience and new methods for studying the brain activity.With advances in technology, electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical potentials from the surface of the scalp that reflect the dynamics of the overall activity of neurons. The analysis of this dynamic opens a pathway to the temporal sequence of neural activities that are proposed to identify the sequence of mental operations identified by other methods based in particular mental chronometry. During the 1980s, new brain imaging methods will emerge with positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in the 1990s. Thanks to them, this time we can know the different regions involved in a given experimental task. The association between mental operation is done so this time not on the time dimension but spatially: the objective being to identify the neurobiological bases of modules postulated by cognitive psychology.The use of neuroscience methods in experimental cognitive psychology will give birth to what today is called cognitive neuroscience.
Criticism of the cognitive approach in psychology
Some argue that this perspective is that of ‘human machine’ that conveys an image of the human being conducive to the ideology of the performance and management. This observation underscores the fact that this does not care about the impact ‘green’ of his theories, and in this sense, we move away from a psychology that measures its progress according to its congruence with the humanity of his ‘object’ of study: us.
Conversely, progress in this discipline since the mid-twentieth century can be seen in the context of better knowledge of man, the analytical approach and modeling informational being there to guide the scientific to specific questions open to experimentation: the image of the brain-computer is a metaphor.In support of this thesis, we can mention the fact that the theory has fundamentally shifted towards an integration of multiple approaches in the cognitive tradition, including connectionist, and helped establish new links with other scientific disciplines as the basic neuroscience, ethology, behavioral genetics, psychology or social sciences and humanities.
Definition
Etymologically, the psychology is the study (logos) of the soul or psyche (psukhê) of human behavior and psychological facts. In the Greek sense, this study focuses on the vegetative functions (psychophysiology), sensitive (perception, motivation, motor skills), intellect (cognitive psychology), (cf. Aristotle, Peri Psukhè). But psychology is not just a study of the functions of the mind, it is also a casuistic approach of subjectivity, an investigation of a truth in the individuality and personality of a subject.The mind is not only a place of combination or association, it defines us as being able to think of himself before the world, and that in a material respect or thanks to abstraction (we see already is a distinction with the animal).
The object of study of psychology is a debate is not closed for centuries. According to the authors, psychology was centered on very different objects, without it is still possible today to decide what is the unified theory that would be widely accepted.
And approaches to this extremely complex issue they traditionally shared between those who consider that the object of psychology is behavior and its genesis, the processes of thought, emotion and character or personality and human relations etc..
The various branches of psychology are distinguished either by the method used (clinical or experimental) or by human activities considered (work, memory, perception, learning, care, group behavior, etc..) Or by major field of research (cognitive psychology, psychopathology, social psychology, child psychology and development, psychophysiology, animal psychology).
Some disciplines of psychology are combined with others, or in related fields or as subdomains of a larger field of study. They are often subjected to formidable epistemological problems, such as psychology, developmental psychology and psychopathology, etc.. Indeed, it is difficult to say for example what is or is not pathology in general and therefore more difficult to pinpoint the pathology of the spirit, personality … question is to realize the theoretical pitfalls that are still not outdated.
Finally, for a long time, the relationship between psychology and philosophy has been very close, if not indistinguishable, since psychology was once part of philosophy, which was often part – especially in ancient times – holding itself to a part of physics in the old sense (morality, consciousness, action, etc..are traditionally philosophical issues encountered in psychology). Some common psychological explicitly based their assumptions on philosophical arguments such as personalism, humanism, the biologists.
It is this extreme diversity that makes the historical complexity, the results locally acquired cross and it takes many studies to unravel the rationality and interest. It is very easy to get inconsistent theories or conduct inconsistent syntheses, which are not lacking throughout the history of psychology multimillennial.
Besides psychology ‘learned’ there for everyone the sense of ‘learn something’ since we all know what a character, a feeling, a thought, an emotional connection, etc.. So what can be said more psychologists on these issues? Especially since most of the general psychological assertions seem to be contradicted or find an example that the cons-ruin.
It is also possible to oppose, in the field of humanities, psychology to sociology, anthropology and political science, she first studied individuals.
History of Psychology
Before presenting the main stages of historical development of psychological science, it is essential to locate the three areas of study that structure the domain of the human psyche. Indeed, the human person is, inextricably, a body with a brain developed to conduct sophisticated, personality, backed by this organism in relation to a company, a subjectivity (conscious and unconscious) constructed from Personality and inserted into a set of social representations.
Axis lines
Historically, this is the first axis which has benefited from scientific treatment, with methods and tools imported from other fields of science. The pipes are studied by science neuropsychophysiologiques as natural pipes.They are, from this point of view, analysis and action for both human behavior than that of animals. And if we can not, strictly speaking, build animal psychology, there is a neuropsychophysiologie animal.
Along this axis, have traditionally developed studies of reflexes, perception, emotion, character, etc.. Since the 1990s, the development of neuroscience and cognitive science, has to address brain function for each of the pipes. Thus, we can discover the possibilities of a human as an animal with a powerful brain.
Axis of personality
The meaning of the acts can be induced behaviors: it uses a different kind of explanation, although any action to implement neuropsychophysiologiques lines and passes through the brain. Acts are both products and producers of personality during his individualization within a historical process, biography. Theories of personality are part of the field of psychology and tell us about:
This pin requires a definition of personality, but no agreement could still be on this definition, which still appears a bit on the fringes of psychology. Although personality is widely discussed and studied literature, art, in biographies, existing theories provide only partial insights on what makes a particular event relevant biographical and critical. The definitions proposed by various theories of personality are contradictory, some seeing the personality as a core of permanent and repetitive behavior, imagining that the other person is a living, evolving throughout life, others personality make a moral entity, ideal.
Axis of the subject
The purpose of this axis is the analysis of training and development of the subject, subjectivity as a structure that is built into the proposed framework:
These three areas are more or less present throughout the history of psychology, since the precursors to the current research.This development, advanced unevenly along the lines often considered independent of each other or even exclusive, will serve as a thread through the wide variety of work in psychology.
A first step was the separation between philosophy and psychology. This separation is still incomplete in some aspects, particularly where the subject is often confusion between subject and subject category philosophical, scientific concept in psychology.
Precursors
Philosophers
Even before the pioneering work of Plato (-427, -348) and Aristotle (-384, -322) in Psychology (the term exist only from 1575, Johannes Thomas Freigius, Ciceronianus), men are interested in perception, sensation, emotions, feelings and thought. It traces found in the Iliad and the Odyssey, in the mythologies of all peoples or in the sacred books, historical psychology (Ignace Meyerson, 1888-1983) demonstrates this.The earliest known texts that evoke a reflection on the emergence of thought and conscience are those whom history has preserved, but it is likely that they relied on previous work that we do not know.
Thus Plato and Aristotle do they appear in full light, while we have no or very few texts of their contemporaries Democritus (c-460, C-360) and Epicurus (-342, -270). Lucretius (-98, -54), better known, belongs to this heritage of antiquity must be completed by two commentators on Aristotle, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198) and Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), which centuries later resume its work and will provide the funds that may be scholasticism.
Plato described a hierarchy of the psyche: the higher soul (courage, ambition) located in the heart, soul less nutritious in the liver. In the Phaedo, it separates the immaterial soul, so the mind, body and equipment considered as the soul controls the body.This idealistic dualism leave deep scars into the various currents of the psychology of the twentieth century.
Aristotle criticizes Plato. Indeed, for him, the soul is not the lead body. In metaphysics, he asks:
Aristotle introduced in his treatise on the soul of a tripartite soul, with a gradualist perspective: vegetative, sensory and cognitive, which reproduces the partition of living things into plants, animals and humans. (Physicians traditionally speak of a ‘vegetative state.’) He is interested in the faculties of the soul (memory, trial, etc..) And wondered what in the soul knows and thinks he calls it ‘poiètikon’ poetic understanding, which should rather be understood in the modern sense of ‘mental’ than poetry. The desire is to obtain the pleasure and the elimination of pain, in a design similar to Epicureanism.
Thus questioning the relationship between body and perception, thought and body, mind and matter, Aristotle opens a debate resumed over the centuries, whether the ‘intellect’ and ‘material intellect’ are unique and eternal (God) or if the soul and intellect are separate. His answer is that the soul is to body as form to matter (as distinct and inseparable).
Lucretia installment by saying that the soul as ‘vital breath’ (anima in Latin) animates the body and in De rerum natura (On the Nature of things), he notes that:
The oppositions between monistic and dualistic conceptions are old and the great difficulty in defining the relationship between body and mind will occupy psychologists following centuries.
Physicians
The other side of the ancient science is the observations and experiences of physicians. From ancient times, questions about mental health and mental disorders are attested: the Ebers Papyrus (c1550 BC) Contains a brief description of clinical depression, with recipes for magical or religious hunt.
Medical thought is born with Empedocles (484-424 BC) in Sicily with his theory of the qualities of the four elements (earth, water, air, fire) in its relations with the four humors necessary for the well-being: blood , phlegm, yellow bile and black bile.
Hippocrates (C460-C370 BC) makes a classification of mental disorders including mania, melancholia, paranoia or damage, epilepsy, in connection with the sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic or melancholic. He met and diseases of the soul and body, diseases are physical, and so he took to demystify mental illness, which had previously been rather linked to demonic manifestations.
Aretaeus of Cappadocia (80-138) is fine descriptions of mental disorders, in particular it offers the beginnings of a unified conception of melancholy and mania.
It Galen (131-201) which will gather prior knowledge (the work of Hippocrates and those of Aristotle in particular) and will significantly expand in what will become, for fifteen centuries, the main source of medical knowledge in spheres of influence Jewish, Christian and Muslim. So, he opened a process of physiological experiments, anatomy, diagnosis and therapy, pharmacology and hygiene. Medicine, from Hippocrates, is preventive (health) as well as curative. The causes of disease and health are sought from natural causes, rational.
Galen distinguished, like Hippocrates, four temperaments and articulates all four elements in a combinatorial allowing it to classify diseases according to the imbalances between the various trends, the bases of emotions and behavior occurring biochemical nature. Thus the excess of blood leads to sanguine, yellow bile choleric temperament, black bile melancholic temperament, etc.. This approach is reflected centuries later in characterology (see Le Senne (1882-1954) in particular).
Alexander Tralles (525-605), Greek physician born in Lycia, develops the theory of Galen and performs a primer theories ‘localizationists’ brain. The Hippocratic heritage of ancient medicine leads to the beginnings of a psychiatry based on four major diseases: the frenzy and lethargy associated with toxic-infectious states, mania and melancholy, ‘madness without fever.’
The Arab heritage will be transmitted in the eleventh century, with its translation into Latin.
(This should complete the picture of science in other sciences Mediterranean, Chinese, Japanese, Indian, etc.).
Late nineteenth and early twentieth century: the early successes
Hitherto confined to the anatomical description of the main structures of the nervous system, neurology nineteenthcentury made significant progress with the development of new technologies (electricity, microscopy, chemistry) that explore the nervous system across the infinitely small, but also, for the first time a point Functionally, that is to say by looking at its physiological mechanisms. At this time, with the discovery of neurons, is set up the notion that the psyche is based on an extremely complex network of nerve cells.
As the examples above, neurology provides great names in the progress of neuroscience, but incursions by neurologists in what is today defined as neuropsychology are rarer, although they are not so much an improvement techniques experimental to a theoretical renewal. Among the major debates that cross discipline, there is the question of the functional organization of the brain:holistic face that take the brain for a homogeneous body without functional compartmentalization, oppose the proponents of cerebral localizationists who defend the idea that the brain is organized into functional areas each providing a more specific function. In ranks of the latter there are as follows:
The late nineteenth century marked the real emergence of psychology as a discipline in its own right between neurology, physiology but also psychiatry. And the School of the Salpetriere in Paris, around the neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) develops a theoretical link to the psyche organic manifestations.
Hitherto regarded as a branch of philosophy, psychology won its independence with the creation of academic chairs and laboratories of its own. At the same time, the German physiologists develop a new approach called psycho whose objective is to determine the mathematical laws that govern the human mind.Their field of expertise is the psychology of perception, but their methods are exported around the world on the grounds of the measurement of intelligence, memory, etc.. :
The beginning of the twentieth century: the methodological approach in psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology, whose scope is the essence of psychopathology in adults and children, is a theoretical and practical psychic functioning that builds on many conceptions of mental life, and psychotherapeutic techniques .
In this approach, the patient’s past history, the vicissitudes of psychological development and updating their potential are taken into account by a practitioner: the clinical psychologist. The symptom is meaningful, and the singularity of the subject, in his experience and his speech is at the forefront.
The goal of clinical psychology is to understand the unity and uniqueness of the subject in a therapeutic approach, which is subtended by a ‘logos’ clearly belonging to the humanities.
Clinical psychology, which has long relied on the psychoanalytic model and maintains a psychodynamic theoretical base, has gradually diversified with the advent of new techniques of psychotherapy and personal development. If the symptom is always regarded as an expression of subjectivity, some practices are more focused on the psychological mobilization related to emotion, body, or group situation. The unconscious becomes an object of investigation more secondary. It may in this context, talk of systemic family therapy, gestalt therapy of, therapy motivationelle, psychodrama, psychotherapy humanist, to name a few.
The cognitive perspective: open the ‘black box’
The cognitive or cognitive psychology was incorporated into the broader framework of cognitive science in the mid-1950s. This approach was based on opposition to the behaviorist tradition which regarded the human mind (and animal) as a ‘black box’ whose results (ie d.behavior) should be analyzed as a function of inputs (ie d. sensory inputs) without having to make additional assumptions about the mechanisms involved. The cognitivist project was therefore to try to characterize not only the link between stimulus and behavioral response observed by the experimenter but also the organization of internal processes involved in this behavior. The debate between these two approaches was particularly illustrated in the criticism by the linguist Noam Chomsky’s book Verbal Behavior of BF Skinner devoted to language. Chomsky denounced the mistake he would want to, as proposed by Skinner, analyze language or other complex behavior as the result of learning based solely on behavior-type associations reward.Thus, in the case of language, the fact that a child can produce grammatically correct sentences even though he has never heard (and was never rewarded or not to have spoken before) may restrict explain that the assumption that the human brain has a special cognitive capacity devoted to language and partly innate: this argument says argument of poverty of the stimulus play an important role in the justification of the idea of a universal grammar which would have all human beings innately.
Beyond the question of language, the cognitivist project will be to show the dead scientist who would, by the behaviourist tradition, wanting to understand the thought without breaking it into a complex combination of multiple processes, some of which may be innate but others result from learning and experience. The metaphor is so prevalent that the brain-computer at a time when advances in computer technology are promising for artificial intelligence.According to the cognitivist paradigm, the information would be a sequential or parallel while moving between the various processes that constitute the human mind according to the schematic structure:
Subsequently, these mental processes have also been named modules as they were conceptualized as mechanisms relatively independent of each other. The philosopher Jerry Fodor formalize this concept in a book under unambiguous, The modularity of mind. In this perspective, the mind (human) is organized at different levels as a complex mechanism comprising modules characterized by the fact that they treat certain information automatically. This would explain certain psychological phenomena such as optical illusions that persist even when we know that this is an illusion, the fact that the visual system operates in a modular fashion. One can also cite other conceptual approaches based, for example, on models of neural networks where information is distributed within a network consists of a large number of units. Mechanisms?? The information processing.This trend called ‘connectionist’ although of lesser influence on the development of cognitive psychology will play an important role in??
These theoretical developments are consistent with experimental developments which form the basis of experimental methods in cognitive psychology. Among these include the renewal of the approach known as mental chronometry proposed a century ago by psychologist Franciscus Donders that the measure of reaction time provides an index of the processing time of a given stimulus. This methodology in combination with the decomposition modularist cognitive psychology gives rise to a very large number of experimental work on perception, decision, language, computation, etc.. The key questions in cognitive psychology are then:
From the 1970s, cognitive psychology will change significantly under the influence of neuroscience and new methods for studying the brain activity.With advances in technology, electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical potentials from the surface of the scalp that reflect the dynamics of the overall activity of neurons. The analysis of this dynamic opens a pathway to the temporal sequence of neural activities that are proposed to identify the sequence of mental operations identified by other methods based in particular mental chronometry. During the 1980s, new brain imaging methods will emerge with positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in the 1990s. Thanks to them, this time we can know the different regions involved in a given experimental task. The association between mental operation is done so this time not on the time dimension but spatially: the objective being to identify the neurobiological bases of modules postulated by cognitive psychology.The use of neuroscience methods in experimental cognitive psychology will give birth to what today is called cognitive neuroscience.
Criticism of the cognitive approach in psychology
Some argue that this perspective is that of ‘human machine’ that conveys an image of the human being conducive to the ideology of the performance and management. This observation underscores the fact that this does not care about the impact ‘green’ of his theories, and in this sense, we move away from a psychology that measures its progress according to its congruence with the humanity of his ‘object’ of study: us.
Conversely, progress in this discipline since the mid-twentieth century can be seen in the context of better knowledge of man, the analytical approach and modeling informational being there to guide the scientific to specific questions open to experimentation: the image of the brain-computer is a metaphor.In support of this thesis, we can mention the fact that the theory has fundamentally shifted towards an integration of multiple approaches in the cognitive tradition, including connectionist, and helped establish new links with other scientific disciplines as the basic neuroscience, ethology, behavioral genetics, psychology or social sciences and humanities.
Classification of disciplines and psychological approaches
The proposed classification of the various psychological disciplines is empirical, it uses the traditional categories of scientific method, an object of study, analytical method, field of study. Like any empirical classification, it is not entirely satisfactory and disciplines belong to several categories, but the focus is on one aspect because of the name chosen by the founders.
‘